Ways of knowing the world around.

Our life is knowledge in its purest form, because having been born and until the last breath, a person constantly makes discoveries for himself. Cognition of the surrounding world in reality is a reflection of this world in our minds. But the study of oneself also represents a certain process of cognition, no less global than the cognition of the world.

The subject or cognizing person is always a person, as an individual, or society as a whole. However, a person's full knowledge of the world around him is impossible without being in society.

Approaches to cognition

The science of epistemology studies the ways of cognition of the surrounding world. There are two main approaches to the study and knowledge of the world:

1. Gnosticism- this is an "optimistic" vision of the world, since the adherents of this point of view insist that the human potential is inexhaustible and a person can comprehend and know all the subtleties of the universe. Admirers of Gnosticism are materialists.
2. Agnosticism- agnostics say the opposite: either the world is unknowable, or a person does not have the proper potential to know the whole world. Among the agnostics are usually idealists. In their opinion, the cognitive capabilities of the human mind are very limited, and we can only know the outer shell of objects, never looking inside.

Tools of knowledge

Methods of cognition of the surrounding world are passed down from generation to generation in the form of books, maps, drawings, diagrams, and the discovery of one person is never 100% his personal property. He is the son of his time and drew knowledge from the sources of his ancestors. An opening never appears by itself from nothing.

The main tool for cognitive activity is practice.

Practice is a purposeful action of a person to transform the world around him. Practical knowledge occurs with the involvement of logic, feelings and rational thinking.

Still, gnostics, not agnostics, is the basis of knowledge. After all, if it were the other way around, humanity would not know even half of what it knows. These are the principles of gnostics that affect a person:

• dialectism allows you to approach the issue from the point of view of human development and use laws, theories, principles;
• story- allows you to look at the issue from the height of historical experience, in the process of development;
• knowability- this is the main principle without which knowledge is impossible, because it represents the very position that it is possible to know the world;
• objectivism- this is an opportunity to see an object fearlessly, regardless of the will and the way it is in the real world;
• creation- the ability to artistically display the real world;
• specifics- the opportunity to consider the problem individually, protected.

Sense cognition

Completely different and unlike thinking is the process of knowing the world around us with the help of sensory feelings. We cannot know the laws of the universe with the help of our nose or ears, however, it is our organs of touch that enable us to reflect external the quality of the world.

Each sensory organ responds and perceives separately, but the brain gives a complete picture. Moreover, thanks to this, we have the opportunity, without feeling now, in the future to reproduce those past feelings.

However, we look at the same thing with the same sensory organs in different ways. The artist, having seen a haystack, will admire the tones and colors, aroma, softness, inspired, he will immediately take up the brush, and the rural peasant will instantly estimate how much this hay will be enough for the cattle. It all depends on our perception of the world.

In addition, we learn and feel what is currently not in front of us. It is on knowledge and the ability to reproduce that human associations are built.

Detailed solution paragraph Questions for chapter 2 on social science for students in grade 10, authors L.N. Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, A.V. Belyavsky 2015

1. What makes it possible to single out culture as an independent sphere of public life? Name the areas, elements that form the sphere of culture, reveal the links between them.

Culture is a concept that has a huge number of meanings in various areas of human life. Culture is the subject of study of philosophy, cultural studies, history, art history, linguistics (ethnolinguistics), political science, ethnology, psychology, economics, pedagogy, etc.

Basically, culture is understood as human activity in its most diverse manifestations, including all forms and methods of human self-expression and self-knowledge, the accumulation of skills and abilities by a person and society as a whole. Culture also appears as a manifestation of human subjectivity and objectivity (character, competencies, skills, abilities and knowledge).

The variety of activities included in the sphere of culture can be divided into four large groups:

Artistic creativity;

Preservation of cultural heritage;

Club and entertainment activities;

Mass creation and dissemination of cultural goods (cultural industry).

The basis for distinguishing these four groups is the difference in the composition of functions (creation, preservation, distribution of benefits) and types of needs satisfied (aesthetic, entertainment, information), the orientation to which is the leading, fundamental for the respective types of activity.

2. “Culture,” wrote the French philosopher J.-P. Sartre, - saves no one and nothing, and does not justify. But it is the work of man - in it he seeks his reflection, in it he recognizes himself, only in this critical mirror can he see his face. What did the author mean? Can you agree with him on everything? Can culture save a person?

Sartre is absolutely right when he considers culture as a critical mirror in which only a person can see his own face. Is it a lot or a little? Obviously, it is not enough if a person is simply satisfied with the fact that he managed to look in the "mirror". And at the same time, it’s a lot if he, having peered, will be able to draw a practical conclusion: is he capable or not capable of accomplishing his plan in terms of his cultural appearance? The same applies to society as a whole. Consequently, the same Sartre is wrong when he assures that culture does not save anyone and nothing. It saves - even when it is able to help a person in his historical actions; and when, having critically assessed itself (which is undoubtedly also an act of high culture), society refrains from actions that are utopian and meaningless in the given socio-cultural conditions.

3. According to the German-French thinker A. Schweitzer, the worldview must meet three requirements: to be conscious (“thinking”), ethical, the ideal of which is the transformation of reality on moral principles, and optimistic. What, in your opinion, is the detailed content of each of these requirements? Do you share the opinion of the scientist, or do you consider it necessary to revise or expand the range of these requirements? Justify your position.

Any views and worldview of a person must have a certain basis, a person’s beliefs must first of all be comprehended by himself, and at some points everyone must rethink their views in order to ultimately find their “truth” based on life experience and observations, reasoning , thinking as such.

The worldview must comply with general ethical standards and, above all, be aimed at improving the existing world and orders in accordance with moral principles, morality, humanity - a person should not get hung up on what has already been achieved and must look to a brighter future, while participating in its "building" rather than waiting for the world to change itself.

I share the opinion of the thinker A. Schweitzer. Now this is very important for our society, because speech and thinking are heavily polluted, and this is repulsive.

4. G. Hegel believed that an outstanding person who creates world-historical deeds is not subject to morality. What matters is the greatness of the deed, not its moral meaning. Do you share this position? Justify your point of view.

Morality is heavily averaged. General rules are necessary for social balance. And save the state. Any new undertaking requires going beyond these limits. Genius always falls out of the general flow. Even the famous religious reformers violated the already established written laws, for which they were executed. Only history showed who was great and who attributed to himself the immortal glory of the maker of history. The opinion of contemporaries is often deceptive and hasty. And the farther from the event, the more adequate the assessment. Above the average morality, the creators of the consciousness of mankind, but they only expand the scope. Impostors have always been distinguished by unjustified cruelty and lack of modesty.

5. What folk proverbs and sayings condemn laziness, indiscipline and irresponsibility? Use the collection of proverbs and sayings collected by V. I. Dahl.

I want to swallow, but I'm too lazy to chew.

A lazy man in the middle of the river asks for a drink.

While the lazy one is warming up, the diligent one will return from work.

Mother Sloth was born before him.

Under a lying stone and water does not flow.

You will become lazy, you will drag yourself with a bag.

Him perishing and be lazy - the laziness.

Labor feeds a person, but laziness spoils.

The day is long until the evening, if there is nothing to do.

Boredom take matters into your own hands.

A small deed is better than a big idleness.

Tyap-blunder - the ship will not come out.

You won't wake up a drowsy one, and you won't send a lazy one.

The lazy always have a holiday.

Postpone idleness, but do not postpone business.

Drinking tea is not chopping wood.

White hands love other people's works.

The seat of the city is not taken.

Long thread is a lazy seamstress.

6. The Russian scientist, Nobel Prize winner Academician Zh. I. Alferov, shortly after the award, stated that if the Nobel Prize had existed in the 18th century, then the first one should have been given to Peter the Great for building the education system according to the triad: gymnasium - university - academy. Justify, based on modern experience, the essence and meaning of this triad.

The triad: gymnasium - university - academy, in the modern world reflects the continuity of education.

Continuing education is the process of growth of the educational (general and professional) potential of the individual throughout life, organizationally supported by a system of state and public institutions and corresponding to the needs of the individual and society. The goal is the formation and development of the personality both during periods of its physical and socio-psychological maturation, flourishing and stabilization of vitality and abilities, and during periods of aging of the body, when the task of compensating for lost functions and capabilities comes to the fore. The system-forming factor is the social need for the constant development of the personality of each person.

7. Find in reference books on religious studies, for example, in the dictionary "Religions of the peoples of modern Russia", concepts related to the moral teachings of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism. Compare them and highlight their common or similar content.

Christianity is an Abrahamic world religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as described in the New Testament. Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah, the Son of God and the Savior of mankind. Christians do not doubt the historicity of Jesus Christ. Christianity is the largest world religion. The largest currents in Christianity are Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Christianity arose in the 1st century in Palestine and in the first decades of its existence it spread to other provinces and among other ethnic groups.

Islam is the youngest and the second largest adherent after Christianity in the world monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Islam is the state or official religion in 28 countries. The majority of Muslims (85-90%) are Sunnis, the rest are Shiites, Ibadis. The founder of Islam is Muhammad (d. 632). Holy book - Koran. The second most important source of Islamic doctrine and law is the Sunnah, which is a set of traditions (hadith) about the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. The language of worship is Arabic. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims.

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine (dharma) about spiritual awakening (bodhi), which arose around the 6th century BC. e. in ancient India. The founder of the teaching is Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha Shakyamuni. This is one of the oldest world religions, recognized by a wide variety of peoples with completely different traditions.

Judaism is a religious, national and ethical worldview formed by the Jewish people, one of the oldest monotheistic religions of mankind and the oldest of those that still exist. Jews are an ethno-religious group that includes those who were born Jewish and those who converted to Judaism. About 42% of all Jews live in Israel and about 42% live in the US and Canada, most of the rest live in Europe. Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning over 3,000 years.

8. How are culture and religion related? Show on specific examples the relationship between secular and religious principles in works of art.

Religion is one form of culture. Religion forms a certain worldview, gives answers to questions about the meaning of life and death. Cultural monuments are created in the religious sphere: temples, icons, musical compositions.

9. How is the knowledge of the world around through art? Why is art called "figurative knowledge"?

Knowledge of the surrounding world with the help of art occurs as a person perceives. Let's take an example. Let's say pictures. They can depict people, plants, nature, interiors, landscapes, anything. Often art is based on reality, but there are exceptions. But these exceptions are the knowledge of the world of human psychology, which is also our environment. Art is called “figurative knowledge”, because there is an intuitive assimilation of new phenomena.

Additional material:

All art objects are a historical source. And through the study of this art, people learn about the world in the past, distant or not so far, as well as in the present. After all, say, contemporary avant-garde art is a good indicator of what excites modern man, what forms of expression he finds, what problems haunt him, and so on.

On the other hand, while creating, a person also cognizes the world around him, first of all, through cognition of himself. Expressing oneself in art is one of the ways of reflection, ways not only to know, but also to come to terms with the surrounding reality.

The subject of art - the life of people - is extremely diverse and is reflected in art in all its diversity in the form of artistic images. The latter, being the result of fiction, nevertheless reflect reality and always bear the imprint of real-life objects, events and phenomena. The artistic image performs the same functions in art as the concept in science: with the help of it, the process of artistic generalization takes place, highlighting the essential features of cognizable objects. The created images constitute the cultural heritage of society and are capable, having become symbols of their time, to have a serious impact on public consciousness.

10. Give a specific example of the phenomenon of mass culture. Highlight the relevant features in it and explain how it affects the consumer.

Example: modern stage (pop music, TV show).

Signs: the most important thing is available to the majority, does not require monetary costs, arose at the time of globalization.

Influence: positive, entertains people, makes it possible to get acquainted with the culture of other countries (example: manner of singing, dancing, speaking)

11. Try to independently develop a specific model of a work of one of the genres of popular culture. According to the laws of the genre, determine what the main character should be, what must be present in the plot, what the denouement should be, etc.

The main character must first be a nondescript, loser, working 5/2, who suddenly has superpower / luck / money / fame (and everything that the loser dreams of from reality), then any test must necessarily appear (save the world / sister / bank / love, etc.), and of course ZhK is a brilliant villain whom no one could catch until this moment, but then he appears, nothing comes out of him the first time, but the second hero wins, but he must be injured in order to there was a tearful scene, a kiss at the end

12. Name the works of elite culture. Explain why you assigned them to her. Show how they interact with the sphere of popular culture.

Elite culture (high) is a creative avant-garde, a laboratory of art, where new types and forms of art are constantly being created. It is also called high culture, because it is created by the elite of society, or by its order by professional creators. It includes fine arts, classical music and literature. As a rule, elite culture is ahead of the level of its perception by an average-educated person, by the broad masses. The creators of elite culture, as a rule, do not count on a wide audience. To understand these works, one must master a special language of art. Thus, the works of abstractionists in the form of color compositions are difficult to perceive by a person who is not familiar with the laws of painting, symbolic color images. The motto of the elite culture is “Art for the sake of art”. In modern culture, films by Fellini, Tarkovsky, books by Kafka, Belle, Picasso's paintings, music by Duval, Schnittke are classified as elite. However, sometimes elite works become popular (for example, films by Coppola and Bertolucci, works by Salvador Dali and Shemyakin).

The role of knowledge of the surrounding world in human behavior cannot be overestimated. All people, in whatever closed environment they are brought up, sooner or later encounter other people, learn about the world around them, and all this affects their upbringing and behavior. Cognition of the world refers to the social need of the individual, and is called the indicative need. All living organisms use sense organs that help them navigate in space. Such external stimuli as sound, color, smell, shape allow you to create a certain attitude towards the world around you and choose a certain form of behavior in relation to it, which allows you to achieve the goal and avoid harmful influences. Thus, the body receives the best conditions for maintaining internal balance in the broadest sense of the word.

Man, unlike other living organisms, has a highly developed intellect. In his knowledge of the world, he uses his inherent capabilities of abstract and figurative thinking, stage-by-stage foresight of the situation, individual planning and organization of his activities. This, to a certain extent, ensures its independence from the external environment, the possibility of transforming various environments and adapting them to their own needs.

Indicative needs can be roughly divided into three corresponding types of indicative activities:

1) cognitive need - the desire for knowledge of external, incomprehensible phenomena for him;
2) the need for emotional contact - the regulation of one's actions not only in accordance with reality, but also depending on the emotional relations of other people;
3) the need for the meaning of life - the desire to compare the value of one's own personality with various levels of collective and universal values.

The application of indicative needs in practice allows a person to navigate in the natural and social environment. At the same time, the general assessment of the situation around him takes place not so much taking into account subject relationships, but with the help of abstract concepts that allow us not to be limited to stating past events, but to foresee and plan them.

However, human behavior in a social environment based on indicative needs is based not only on a purely intellectual assessment of the situation. Orientation also includes an emotional attitude to reality, including an emotional response to the state of another person. Paradoxically, it is a fact that an emotional attitude to reality can be well developed in people with reduced mental abilities and at the same time completely absent in outstanding intellectuals. This attitude helps to understand, feel, evaluate the state of another person and thus facilitates the implementation of joint actions. That is, the need for emotional contact is for a person an important part of his indicative needs. It not only facilitates orientation in the social environment, but also allows you to plan and implement the daily behavior of a person in society.

In psychology, two levels of organization of human behavior are distinguished: situational and personal. Situational, as a rule, is due to the experiences of social and physical parameters of the environment, which are mainly not evaluated in terms of personal goals and preferences. At the situational level of organization, the behavior itself is, as it were, imposed on a person from the outside and is characterized by unpredictability and inconsistency. This type of behavior in its purest form is characteristic of children under four years of age. Then the child begins to show purposefulness, which indicates that a personality with a certain character is already being formed. Situational motives gradually develop into personal motives of behavior.

Based on their goals and objectives, a developing personality acquires the ability, depending on their personal needs, to accept or reject external and internal motives as motives for behavior. The psychology of activity assumes that a person is not only critical of his motives, but also makes these motives an object of control and regulation, depending on his own life meanings. If a person accepts a motive, then this means that he is endowed with a certain life meaning for him.

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Slides captions:

Knowledge of the world around

Plan: The process of cognition, Forms of cognition: sensual and rational, true and false, Truth, its criteria, Scientific knowledge.

1. The process of cognition Cognition is a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

The process of cognition, no matter how it goes, always presupposes the presence of two sides: the subject and the object of cognition. The process of cognition The subject of cognition The cognizing person, endowed with will and consciousness, or the collective The whole society The object of cognition The whole world around The cognizable object, (process, phenomenon, internal state of a person) The result is knowledge

Types of knowledge: everyday, social, scientific, religious, mythological, artistic. None of the types of knowledge is isolated from the others, they are all closely interconnected.

2. Forms of knowledge: sensual and rational, true and false. Cognition has two levels (two sides) - sensory cognition - is carried out by the senses (sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste) and rational cognition - inherent only to man, is a more complex way of reflecting reality, which is carried out through thinking.

Forms of sensory cognition Sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process, arising as a result of their direct impact on the sense organs. Perception is a sensual image of a holistic picture of an object, process, phenomenon that directly affects the senses. Representation is a sensually visual, generalized image of an object, process, phenomenon, stored and reproduced in the mind and without direct influence of the objects of knowledge themselves on the senses.

Forms of rational cognition A concept is a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object, process, or phenomenon. A judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, process, or phenomenon. Inference (conclusion) is the mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them. Inductive - reasoning from the particular to the general. Deductive - reasoning from the general to the particular. Received - by analogy.

A peculiar form of conjugation of the sensual and the rational in cognition is intuition (lat. intuitis - look, view) - a type of cognition in which the ability to directly comprehend the truth as a result of "illumination", "influence", "enlightenment" is manifested without relying on logical justifications and evidence . The main signs of intuition: suddenness; incomplete awareness; the direct nature of the emergence of knowledge. There are the following types of intuition: intellectual - associated with mental activity; mystical - connected with life experiences, the emotional world of a person.

Sometimes the result of knowledge is delusion. This is not an absolute fiction, but usually a one-sided reflection of objective reality by the subject. Delusion is the content of the knowledge of the subject, which does not correspond to the reality of the object, but is taken as the truth. Sources of delusion: errors associated with the transition from the sensory level of knowledge of the object to the rational; incorrect transfer of someone else's experience without taking into account a specific problem situation. A lie is a conscious distortion of the image of an object.

3. Truth, its criteria Truth is: correspondence of knowledge to reality; what is confirmed by experience; some kind of agreement, convention; property of self-consistency of knowledge; the usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice. The classical concept of truth is connected with the first definition: truth is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it.

Objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or humanity. Absolute truth is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted. Relative truth is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways in which this knowledge is obtained; it is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

The criterion of truth is that which certifies truth and distinguishes it from error. Possible criteria of truth: compliance with the laws of logic; compliance with previously discovered laws of a particular science; compliance with fundamental laws; practice; simplicity, economy of form; paradoxical idea. Practice (from Gr. praktikos - active, active) is an integral organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.

4. Scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is a special kind of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society. The main features of scientific knowledge are the following: the objectivity of the obtained knowledge; development of the conceptual apparatus (categoriality); rationality associated with consistency, evidence and consistency; verifiability; high level of generalization of knowledge; universality; the use of special methods and methods of cognitive activity.

Levels of scientific knowledge Empirical - Identification of objective facts, as a rule, from their obvious connections Theoretical - Identification of fundamental patterns, detection behind visible manifestations of hidden, internal connections and relationships

Forms of scientific knowledge A scientific fact (Latin factum - done, completed) is a reflection of an objective fact in human consciousness, that is, a description through a certain language. An empirical law is an objective, essential, specifically universal, repetitive, stable connection between phenomena and processes. A problem is a conscious formulation of questions that arise in the course of cognition and require an answer. The problem can be theoretical or practical. A scientific problem is expressed in the presence of opposing positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requires an adequate scientific theory to resolve it. Hypothesis (gr. Hypothesis - basis, assumption) - a scientific assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true value of which is uncertain, is probabilistic in nature and needs to be proven, verified, justified. In the course of testing, hypotheses turn into theories; clarified and concretized, or discarded as a delusion. Theory (gr. theoria - observation, consideration, research) is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of the regular and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality.

Methods of scientific knowledge Observation, experiment, measurement, classification, systematization, description, comparison Universal: analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, analogy, modeling, abstraction, idealization Unity of the historical and logical, ascent from the concrete to the abstract and from the abstract to the concrete, formalization , mathematization

Analysis (gr. analysis - decomposition) - the process of mental or actual decomposition of the whole into its component parts. Synthesis (gr. synthesis - connection) - the process of mental or actual reunification of the whole from parts. Induction (lat. inductio - guidance) - the path of experimental study of phenomena, during which a transition is made from individual factors to general provisions. Separate facts, as it were, suggest a general position. Deduction (lat. deductio - inference) - proof or derivation of a statement (consequence) from one or more other statements (premises) based on the laws of logic, which is reliable. The universal method of scientific knowledge is analogy (gr. analogia - correspondence) - the similarity of non-identical objects in some aspects, qualities, relations. Modeling (fr. modele, from lat. modulus - sample, measure) - reproduction of the characteristics of an object on another object (model), specially created for their study. The need for modeling arises when the study of the object itself is impossible, difficult, expensive, takes too long, etc. Abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction) is one of the universal methods of cognition, which consists in mental abstraction from a number of properties of objects and relations between them and highlighting any property or relationship. Various concepts and categories act as results of the abstraction process. Idealization is a mental act associated with the formation of some abstract objects that are fundamentally not feasible in experience and reality.

Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps “Science formulates its conclusions in ____________ (1), laws and formulas, taking out of brackets the emotional attitude of the cognizer _____________ (2) to the phenomena being studied. Everything that science makes its ___________ (3), it explores from the side of regularities and _______ (4). Scientific knowledge is based on the system __________ (5) and develops its own ___________ (6), different from the usual. The words in the list are given in the nominative case, singular. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps. A) question B) subject C) problem D) method E) scheme E) theory G) language 3) subject I) reason