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The wrong side of the dressed skin 6 letters. Layer of subcutaneous tissue on raw hide

Skinning at home

It is a sin to throw away the skin taken from the carcass of a killed animal, whether it be a trophy of a successful hunt, a domestic goat, a sheep or a nutria. Get to know a cheap and simple method of skinning, which, in my opinion, is accessible to everyone. I use it for dressing the skins of sheep, deer, woodchucks, rabbits and goats. But the method is suitable for dressing the skins of all mammals, especially if you want to keep the fur. After such dressing, the skin becomes soft and easy to work with, for example, for making things that require cutting and sewing.

Sprinkle salt on raw skins

The raw skin, just removed from the carcass, must be cooled, after removing the remnants of meat and fat from its inside. For cooling, the skin is spread in the shade on an absolutely flat surface, for example, on a concrete or stone floor, with the wool down.

When you feel to the touch that the skin has cooled down, immediately pour edible non-iodized salt onto its inner side (mezdra). For the processing of sheep or deer skins, you will need from 1.5 to 2.5 kg of salt. If the skins are not salted immediately after skinning the carcasses, they will be lost. The decomposition process will begin, and during further processing, the skins will lose their fur.

The skin should lie on a flat surface, its edges should not twist. When dragging the skin, do not stretch it. If part of the salt crumbles from the surface of the mezra, add it without sparing. Salt should absorb moisture so that the skin is completely dry and crispy. The process can take anywhere from a few days to a couple of weeks. A completely dried skin retains both its shape and quality well.

What is required for skinning?
If you are ready to start dressing skins, prepare everything you need for this in advance:

26.5 liters of water, 1 kg (16 cups) bran flakes, 16 cups of ordinary non-iodized salt, 2 large plastic vats with a capacity of 114 liters and 1 lid, 1 wooden stick, 1.2 m long, for stirring the solution and turning the skins, 3.5 cups of acid for car batteries, 2 packs of baking soda, wooden grate or mat for stretching skins, hoof oil, nails, metal brush.

The indicated quantities are calculated for the dressing of four skins of large animals, or 10 rabbit skins, or 6 skins of medium-sized animals, for example, marmots. For dressing fewer skins, adjust the indicated numbers.

Skin dressing solution

A few hours before you plan to start dressing, dry skins should be immersed in fresh, clear water and soaked until they become elastic.

Boil 11.5 liters of water and pour it over the bran. After an hour, when the flakes are well steamed, throw them on a sieve to express the brownish infusion. Bring the remaining 15 liters of water to a boil. Pour 16 cups of salt into a plastic vat, cover with boiling water and stir well with a wooden stick until the salt is completely dissolved. Pour brownish infusion of bran into salt water and stir the resulting liquid.

When the liquid cools and becomes slightly warm, add car battery acid to it. Observe the precautions on the acid vial label when doing this. Wear old gloves and a long-sleeved shirt when handling acid. Pour the acid carefully, holding the vial just above the surface of the solution and avoid splashing. Stir the resulting mixture well.

Now you can start cleaning the dry mezdra. When dressing fresh skins, this procedure can be omitted. Immerse the skins in the solution and stir. The skins must be completely covered with liquid in order to be well saturated with it. In the solution, the skins must be kept for about 40 minutes, periodically stirring them with a stick for uniform soaking.

Fill the second plastic tub with clean warm water and proceed to wash the skins. Remove all the skins from the solution one by one using a wooden stick and place them in a container of clean water - you need to wash off the excess salt from the skins. In order for the skins to be washed better, they need to be stirred and patted with a stick for 5 minutes, and when the water becomes dirty, change it to clean.

Some people add baking soda to the rinse water to neutralize acid residue in the skin. This allows you to insure people with sensitive skin from possible irritation. But on the other hand, this neutralizes the acid that was used specifically to preserve the skin. Therefore, before pouring soda into a vat for washing dressed skins, decide for what purpose you will use them. If it is assumed that the skin or fur will come into contact with human skin, then you need to rinse it in water with soda. And if the skin is thrown on the floor like a carpet, or hung on the wall, then in my opinion, you can not add soda when rinsing.

Washed skins should be hung on a stable and strong crossbar so that water can drain from them. Then soak a sponge, rag or brush with the foot oil and apply the oil to the still wet skin. To do this, you will need 30 g of hoof oil. It is very quickly absorbed into the mezdra, leaving only a slight oily coating.

Now the skin needs to be pulled over a wooden grate or flooring. When nailing the skin to the deck, gently stretch it out so that the skin is taut, but not too tight. Transfer the flooring with the skin stretched to the shade to dry.

Do not pour out the acidic solution left after dressing the skins without neutralization. To neutralize the acid, two packs of soda are enough. During the reaction, the solution will begin to foam strongly and release toxic gas. Therefore, it is better to do it in a room with good ventilation and stand away from the vat. Do not pour the solution near the drain.

Skins during the drying period should be checked daily. When the core in the center feels dry, elastic and soft, remove the skin from the flooring, spread it with the fur down and go over the core with a metal brush. Thanks to this procedure, the skin becomes softer and lighter. Do not brush too hard or rub in any one area of ​​the skin. Just try to make the inside look like suede. After that, the skin needs to be hung for a couple of days for the final drying.

Last tip

As soon as your friends find out that you can make skins, be prepared for the fact that you will not end up with those who want to use your abilities. If you can't deny your friends this service, then at least don't do it for free. Industrial tanning costs between $25 and $45 a piece, and your service should be adequately priced, even if the money you get is only enough for a case of beer. Otherwise, the hunters will drag you all their trophies, overwhelm you with work and deprive you of the opportunity to do other things.

It is possible that someone will use the services of professionals to find out what mistakes you made, or how much your service can result in. People really appreciate skins obtained with their own hands, and this warning will help you avoid misunderstandings and maintain good relations with friends.

Leather is a natural material made from the skins of various animals. Just as no two animals are the same, so there are no two identical pieces of skin. These natural features are not defects, but only add to the uniqueness of each finished product. This is especially true for exotic skins.

Leatherworking is perhaps one of the oldest crafts on earth. Primitive people began to process animal skins many thousands of years ago. This process can be called the very first manufacturing industry. According to archaeologists, the remains of leather clothes were found in ancient Egypt, which were made back in the 13th century BC. Almost everything was made from leather. Ancient people used primitive shoes to protect their feet: they wrapped their feet with pieces of animal skins and fastened them with leather strips or veins. The very first human shoes were sandals, which instead of soles had a plank tied to the foot with leather straps.

Animals were hunted for their meat and fat, but the animal had to be skinned before food was used. For this, sharp pieces of flint were used, and later, flint knives. Further, the skins were used to warm the bodies of people and wrapped around the legs, representing the first type of boots. But raw skins soon began to decompose and rot. Drying the hides in the sun was observed to conserve them, but the result was a very hard, inflexible material, of little use for clothing. The skins needed to be softened. This was done by rubbing the hide to be prepared with various fats.

The fat also helped keep the hides from getting wet. This type of processing made animal skins soft and elastic. In addition, water was used to process the skins, to which various types of bark and berries were added. It was found that after such treatment, the skins became significantly softer and could resist decay. Active substances contained in extracts from certain plants and producing such an effect on animal skins are called tannins. It was one of the first methods of tanning leather. Gradually, the technique of making things from leather improved, household items turned into real works of art.

Probably, all the peoples of the Earth were engaged in leatherworking, because in ancient times leather was the most accessible material. Humanity learned to spin and weave much later. The Ugrians (a group of Finnish peoples - the Finno-Ugric language group) sewed boots from the skin of birds with plumage; many tribes decorated leather clothes and shoes with silk and gold embroidery, precious stones, paintings, and pearls. The Indians closed the seams on leather clothing with strips of colored prickly fish scales so that the seams would not let moisture through.

For the Slavs, leatherworking was also the oldest craft. Already in the 6th-7th centuries in Russia, various methods of dressing and processing leather were known. Artistic processing of leather especially developed in the North and Central Russia. So, for example, in the city of Torzhok, colorful morocco was made, pillows, belts, purses, pouches, and shoes embroidered with silver, gold, and silk were made from it. Before the First World War, these items were exported from Russia, as well as some types of leather, which were superior in quality to European counterparts.

Another thing to be noted is the widespread use of leather in book printing. For a long time, books were written on parchment - calfskin dried on a frame. In addition, book bindings themselves were made of leather.

The processes used to make leather today were invented by our ancestors many thousands of years ago. Since ancient times, leather has been made using the tanning process, which uses animal brains as a source of emulsified oils. This process is known as "Indian tanning" and the practice is still used by some people on a small scale. This tanning process is most often used for deer skins. This practice has given rise to the saying that “an animal has only the mental capacity to keep its own skin, dead or alive.

The skin has not lost its relevance in the modern world. With all the development of technology and the emergence of new synthetic materials, leather continues to attract more and more new supporters and admirers. Nowadays, genuine leather products are in great demand, despite their high price.

PRODUCTION OF GENUINE LEATHER

Leather processing

It is believed that the highest quality leather is made from the skins of cows (ox, calf). It is used for shoes, clothing, furniture upholstery, etc. Leather from sheep or goat skins (sheepskin, goat skin) is mainly used with hairline (like fur). Pigskin leather is elastic, but has a persistent characteristic odor, which is why it is valued lower than others. Skin from crocodile, python, stingray, ostrich and other exotic animals is used for the production of leather goods, clothing, footwear and other business areas.

There is a rule that the higher the quality of the skin, the fewer stages in the technological cycle of its processing to the finished skin. The challenge when processing skins with good face quality (by face is the top layer of the hide) is usually to keep the face intact and even emphasized. On the finished product, the natural pattern of the face is preserved - wrinkles and pores, which are present on the raw skin. Applying the palm to the surface of the skin with a natural face (fool grain) you get the feeling of a natural elastic product.

The skins of dairy calves (calves), having a smaller thickness compared to the skins of adult animals, can compete with them in terms of strength and wear resistance. This is due to the denser and denser fiber structure of the skins of dairy calves. The process of processing skins to finished leather can be simplified as a combination of three main stages:

Leather dressing.

Dressing is one of the simplest ways of processing leather, and at the same time the most ancient of them.

The production of finished leather is a rather laborious and lengthy process, which consists of three main stages leather production:

soaking-ash processes;

preparatory processes and tanning;

chemical finishing and dyeing and greasing processes.

1. Washing-ash processes

Raw skins: skins of cattle, mainly skins of bulls and cows, taking into account their origin and weight category. Raw skins are supplied from the south of Germany and Switzerland, as well as from other regions: skins of wild animals - from the USA, South America, Australia, New Zealand, etc., in some cases, water buffalo skins are used (India and Indonesia), less often - calf and pork skins.

Canning: If the delivery of the skin does not take much time and its immediate processing is provided, then the skin is simply frozen. For all cases, the supply of salted skins is considered normal.

Soaking: First stage of processing. The skins are soaked to remove dirt. They re-hydrate. Biological moisturizers are used for softening. First, preliminary softness is achieved, then the main one. After the skin is softened, the remaining meat can be removed.

Gilding: Removal of the upper stratum corneum of the skin and hairline. At this stage, the type of leather is determined, which serves as the basis for its further intended purpose. The applied chem. substances: lime and sodium sulfide, which are then neutralized with acid.

There are 4 main goals for this:

1) weaken the connection of the hair and epidermis with the dermis;

2) to carry out partial saponification of fatty substances;

3) to achieve sufficient swelling of the skin fibers;

4) bring the skin to the chemical state necessary for tanning.

In addition, the conditions of gilding and ashing also affect such properties of the finished leather as tensile strength and moisture capacity. The strength of the skins subjected to the intense action of the ash pan is always less. This is due to the destruction of bonds in the main chain (intramolecular bonds) during such development.

The water resistance of the skins decreases with intensive treatment with an ash solution, which is associated with an increase in their porosity.

2. Preparatory process with.

Hair trim. It is produced on special hair-cutting machines. This operation is carried out after gilding, when the connection between the hair and the dermis is weakened. The semi-finished product after wool shearing is usually called pelt.

Mezdrenie: Removal of cuts of meat, tendons and subcutaneous fat layer (mesdra). Mezdra is used for the production of technical gelatin. Finished leathers are ready for tanning and are called “sheepskins”.

Face cleaning. This operation follows after mezdreniya. Cleaning consists in removing short hair (sagging), as well as partly the decay products of proteins and fats.

Deashing and pickling: The skin is cleansed of ashing products by means of neutralization, defermentation is carried out - pickling. The skin is treated thoroughly and becomes smoother. The green pelt is in a state of gluttony - strong swelling and contains a large amount of calcium compounds, both associated with collagen and deposited in the form of lime and lime salts.

Heaving: Serves as a preparation for the mineral tanning process. The hide is immersed in drums of brine and then treated with a weakly concentrated acid. The tannins added during this process cannot yet act actively, but evenly impregnate the skin.

Flushing. Washing is carried out with water to remove calcium salts and protein breakdown products. After washing, the fleece enters the tanning machines for tanning.

doublingWetblue: Doubling is subjected to the skin, obtained from large raw materials (bull-calf, bull-calf, bull-calf, etc.). When doubling, the fleece after gilding is sawn on splitting machines into two layers: the upper front layer and the lower bakhtarmy.

The fleece over the entire surface is cut in thickness into layers. The layer with traces of skin defects is cut evenly over the entire thickness. The remaining layers retain their natural thickness unevenness. The top layer is the future genuine leather / The lower layers after tanning are called splits. The top layer of leather used for the production of leather furniture is additionally gilded.

When sawing, they are set by the thickness of the front split, so it is obtained with the same thickness over the entire area. The upper split is usually used for the manufacture of more important parts of shoes, bahtarmyany for less important parts of shoes and haberdashery leather.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that the overall strength of splits is low compared to the original hide.

In addition to the above preparatory operations for some types of leather, doubling, shaping, softening, pickling are additionally used.

2. 2. Tanning

Tanning shop.

The resulting raw material is processed in special tanning drums, after which a wet blue semi-finished chrome product is obtained, which is ready for use.

The resulting nakedness is unsuitable for the manufacture of shoes and other products. When flooded, the fleece swells strongly, absorbing large amounts of moisture and greatly increasing in volume.

Drying of the hide is accompanied by a sharp decrease in its volume, gluing of its structural elements and a change in mechanical properties. Dried pelt becomes hard, horny and brittle. The fleece is not resistant to heat when wet, bacteria and enzymes. Thus, the form, stability of the material is lost. To get rid of these phenomena, the netting is tanned, that is, it is treated with tannins.

According to modern concepts, tanning is the process of bonding collagen molecules with tanning agent particles (cross-linking of molecules)

The skin obtained as a result of tanning differs from the skin in a whole range of properties:

♦moisture capacity decreases, as the ability to swell in water is lost;

♦ stiffness increases, because during tanning due to the formation of additional cross-links in the dermis, the mobility of skin collagen macromolecules is lost;

♦the strength of the structural elements of the track is increased. But it should be remembered that excessive tanning, on the contrary, reduces strength. This is explained by the fact that when tanning above a certain optimum, the strength decreases due to an increase in rigidity and a decrease in the ability to orient the structural elements of the skin;

♦increased elasticity and associated wear resistance;

♦ heat resistance increases. This is due to the increase in the number of cross chemical bonds and the welding temperature during tanning (Tcg);

♦porosity increases. This is due to the fact that tanning agents, penetrating (wedging) into the structure of the dermis, separate the elements of the structure and in the future this is fixed due to the formation of chemical cross-links;

♦ form stability increases. This is due to the fact that tanning agents, forming cross-links between collagen macromolecules, do not allow the dermis to swell and, moreover, do not allow them to come together and stick together;

♦increased chemical resistance. This is due to the fact that the functional groups of collagen in the dermis are blocked by tannins;

♦appearance improves;

♦ the thickness, area and angle of inclination of bundles of collagen fibers increase in the dermis after tanning. This already speaks of the economic efficiency of tanning and, in particular, the increase in the wear resistance of sole leathers.

The modern theory of tanning considers tanning as a process consisting of a number of physical and chemical phenomena and proceeding in two stages. The first stage is the diffusion of the tanning agent into the thickness of the skin, the second is the interaction of the tanning agent with collagen molecules. In this case, both processes occur simultaneously.

Tanning substances are classified into two groups:

1. Organic (tanides, aldehydes, fats).

2. Mineral (titanium, chromium, zirconium and aluminum compounds).

Basic tanning:

Chrome tanning is carried out with aqueous solutions of basic salts of trivalent chromium, which is not poisonous. Tannins penetrate deep into the skin, which helps to strengthen it and will not cause damage under normal use. Hexavalent chromium is not used for tanning, as it is poisonous. After the penetration of chromium into the treated skin, the acid residues are partially drawn out, and the chromium is fixed in the skin fibers and thus neutralized. Similarly, zirconium, aluminum and titanium tanning is carried out.

Plating and drying:

To set the tannins, the skin is laid out in layers and dried.

Folding (rolling):

Serves to even out the thickness of the skin.

Neutralization: The remaining acids in the skin are carefully neutralized with slaked lime. In subsequent processing steps, skin groups are established.

Final tanning: modification and development of leather properties using stronger tannins in combination with the main tanning. It can be combined with vegetable and/or synthetic tannins, with chromium and other minerals.

3. Chemical finishing and dye-greasing processes

At the final stage of chemical finishing, the following operations are performed:

retanning (chromium compounds, syntans, and other special agents are used); Dyeing: leathers are dyed in dye baths with permanent dyes that penetrate deep into the leather fibers. Only natural, non-toxic and environmentally friendly dyes are used. The paint penetrates deeply into the structure of the skin, fattening (fats, oils, emulsifiers, ammonia are used)

The end product of leather production is leather, that is, the entire technological process of production is nothing more than the transformation of the skin into finished leather.

Vegetable (aldehyde) tanned leather is leather that is made using tanning bark (hence the name "tanning") and other ingredients obtained from plants, tree barks and similar sources. The result is a brown elastic material. The desired shade is achieved by varying the quantity and quality of the ingredients used and by selecting the color of the raw materials. Vegetable tanned leather is not waterproof. When exposed to moisture, it changes color, and if it absorbs liquid and then dries, it will decrease in size (“shrink”) and harden, become less elastic. In hot water, this type of leather “shrinks” strongly and becomes a hard, brittle material, which limits its use.

Alum-tanned leather, in the course of which aluminum salts are used, mixed with various binders and protein substances, for example, egg powder, etc. Purists argue that alum-tanned leather is technically rawhide, not tanned, as the resulting material will rot in water. This process produces leathers that are not saturated, but the resulting material is not as elastic as vegetable tanned leather.

Rawhide is made by scraping the hide, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while drying. Like alum-tanned leather, rawhide is not technically a "leather" but is usually referred to along with other forms of leather. Rawhide is tougher and more brittle than other forms of leather and is used to make drums, as well as cords used for lacing or stitching.

Boiled leather - products made from leather (vegetable tanned leather), to increase strength, are immersed in hot water or boiling wax, or similar substances. Historically, such leather was used as armor due to its hardness and light weight, and was also used for book bindings.

Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, uses chromium sulfate and other chromium salts to make leather. This form of leather is softer and more elastic than vegetable tanned leather. In addition, it does not change color and does not lose shape when exposed to water, like vegetable tanned leather.

Leather (usually vegetable tanned leather) can be lubricated with certain oily substances to improve its water resistance. This increases the amount of natural fats found directly in the skin, which are washed out during the operation of leather products, which can be exposed to intense moisture. Frequent lubrication of leather products with mink oil, refined oil or similar substances will keep the leather soft and prolong the life of the product.

Finished leather production.

The production of finished leather is a rather laborious and lengthy process that takes place in several stages.

Skin coloring.

The sorted leather is transferred to the dyeing shop, where the so-called Crust semi-finished product is obtained.

The semi-finished product is sorted and transferred for further dyeing, which is carried out using the latest technologies in special dyeing drums, which makes it possible to economically use chemistry and treat the skin delicately.

Before dyeing, the color of the skin depends on the tanning method (fat tanning - mustard yellow; chrome - light green; iron - canary color, etc.).

Skins that do not have any defects, without spots and without masks, can be stained in various cysts; skin with spots turns black. For black coloration of the skin, after tanning and washing, it is dyed, then fattened and dried. For color dyeing, the skin is only dyed without being fattened, since the fat can leave stains.

For dyeing black, vegetable dyes and aniline dyes are used; for colored leathers, aniline dyes are now almost exclusively used.

Aniline dyes are divided into basic and acidic.

Perfectly smooth elite leather at this stage is ready to go to the packaging shop.

Leather, which for one reason or another is not smooth, is embossed.

Experts determine the quality of the leather and the type of embossing that will help hide minor imperfections in the surface of the leather.

Various types of embossing are used: from very small (the so-called pulverized plate) to very large (the so-called Tigina), as well as shagreen embossing, used for sewing shoes for special purposes.

fine embossing

shagreen embossing

very fine embossing

very large embossing

large embossing

medium embossing

Before packing and sending to the warehouse of finished products, all leather undergoes final sorting and measurement.

When the skins, after the preservation process, reach the tannery, they are examined for signs of damage or poorly prepared and preserved hides. At this stage, the entire batch of skins can be rejected and returned to the manufacturer.

In turn, the skin is classified according to the method of coloring:

1. Immersion coloring. Two skins are folded with the inner side and immersed manually in a 40-50 ° dyeing bath; while the inner side is painted only very weakly. This method is used for dyeing small leathers (goats, sheep, calves, etc.), with a small amount of them.

2. Painting in a vat with wide rotating blades. The blades, when rotated together with the dyeing bath, turn and skin. With this method, which is especially suitable for large quantities of leathers, both sides of the leather are dyed.

3. Coloring in the washing drum, closed rotating vessel with hollow axes for adding the coloring solution. This method requires a very "short" dye bath, so that dyes can be used very well; this method is mainly used for chrome leather.

4. Applying paint with brushes produced mostly on large skins. The skin is spread on the table, the upper side is well wetted, and then the paint is applied.

5. Coloring substances. For dyeing leather tanned with vegetable oak substances, basic and acid dyes are used, less often substantive ones. When using basic dyes, add 1-2 g of acetic acid per 1 liter of dye mixture. For acid dyes, add 1-3 g of formic acid per 1 liter of water. Nothing is added to substantive dyes. In all cases, coloring is done at 45-50°.

6. Chrome leather finish. For chrome skin, acidic dyes are primarily used with the addition of acetic or sulfuric acid. Before adding the coloring matter, for better fixing of the color, the skin should be treated with quebracho extract. Basic dyes are also suitable for coloring chrome leather; the quebracho bath is enhanced accordingly. Acetic acid should be added to substantive dyes. The temperature of the dye baths can reach up to 50-60°.

7. Coloring of kid skin. Laika skin is dyed like chrome, but the temperature of the dye baths should be lower (40-45 °).

(Mainly acidic and basic dyes are used.)

8. Suede leather finish. When dyeing suede, basic paints are used (with Glauber's salt and acetic acid) and dyed at a temperature of 30 °. Acid dyes are used with the addition of Glauber's salt, at a dye bath temperature of 40-45 °.

9. Patent leather finish. a) In black. The skin that they want to varnish is fixed in a frame, placed on a smooth board and sanded on the front side with a piece of pumice until the skin is no longer rough. Next, they take a good oil varnish, mix it with Dutch soot and make a liquid paint from this, with which they smear the skin; then the latter is exposed to the sun to dry, and carefully protected from dust.

Having done this, they proceed as before, dry again, take pumice and polish; when the skin becomes smooth, it is dried for an hour, after which the paint that was applied is mixed with Dutch soot and smeared with liquid 2-3 more times.

When it dries again, take felt and finely ground pumice stone and polish until the skin is completely smooth.

Skin Configuration

In production, leather is cut and has various configurations.

Scraping is the division of the skin into topographic areas. Scraping is subjected to large raw materials, the topographic areas of which are most differentiated in thickness and microstructure.

According to the configuration of the skin there are: whole skin, semi-skin, kulat, semi-kulat, collar, saddle.

Types of leather according to the method of finishing

Smooth skins

They preserve the natural pattern as much as possible - measure, are not embossed at all, or a very small - "dust-like" embossing is applied to the front surface. The skins of this group are made from the highest quality raw materials using the most modern chemical materials.

Sanded leather

Grinding the fringed side and additional splitting make it possible to obtain "Velour", which is used for the production of sports, home and model shoes. However, there are leathers, the polishing of which is predetermined by the technology of their dressing - this is "Nubuk", which is indispensable for the manufacture of both men's and women's shoes. Colored nubuck inserts are widely used in the production of children's shoes.

Embossed leather

Leathers of the middle and lower price ranges are indispensable for inexpensive, work or uniform shoes. They differ in pattern and embossing depth. The finer the pattern and the depth of embossing, the less ability to hide defects this embossing has. All drawings can be divided into several categories:

Patent leather

Depending on the properties and color of the coating, the skin can acquire a wide variety of color and organoleptic properties. Such leather is very widely used in the production of both women's and men's model shoes. Patent leathers are represented by the articles "Orion", "Naplak". Patent leather can be embossed to obtain the desired pattern. Patent leather shoes look great and always attract attention.

splits

An artificial polymer "face" is applied to the split leather, imitating the natural front surface. The split leather manufacturing technology allows using inexpensive raw materials and obtaining an excellent solution for the production of inexpensive shoes with a quality close to the quality of genuine leather with a front surface. The range of split wood with artificial front surface is represented by the article "Legend" with various embossing options. All options for embossing splits are identical to embossing leather with a front cover, which allows you to combine them in the production of shoes (toe - front leather, ankle boots, tops - split). Split splits without applying an artificial "face" are used for the manufacture of shoe lining material, sewing overalls.

Krasty

Semi-finished leather obtained after a drum-dyeing operation (no surface finish). It has a natural face pattern. The lack of surface finish avoids most of the flaws associated with exfoliation of the "face" - wrinkling and fragrance. Modern processing allows to give the crust the property of hydrophobicity, and special dyeing - through paint. A well-dressed crust is difficult to distinguish from leathers with a smooth grain. Crusts are widely used by shoemakers for the production of shoes for a wide variety of purposes.

Leather substitutes.

We distinguish 4 main types of products we represent (3 types of artificial leather and PVC film):

Iskozha (leatherette) MF. This is a modern skin based on microfibers (Micro Fiber)

Iskozha (leatherette) PU. This is a modern type of artificial polyurethane leather

Iskozha (leatherette) PVC. Classic PVC leather

PVC film. PVC film

Today, artificial leather (leatherette) is a high-quality and environmentally friendly material that surpasses natural leather in some respects. At the request of the customer, in terms of aesthetic appearance, artificial leather is no different from natural leather, both from the front and back sides. At the same time, it is possible to make artificial leather with a texture and color that is not characteristic of natural leather, which designers skillfully embody in their fashionable modern projects.

Nowadays, most types of leather are made from cow hides, but skins from other animals are also used. The skins of lambs and deer are used to produce soft leather, from which the most expensive clothes are sewn. Kangaroo skin is used as a raw material for the production of products that must be strong but flexible, such as leggings. Leather made from the skins of more exotic animals, in particular some types of reptiles, was very popular at one time. Products from it were considered the most beautiful and refined. For this reason, the hunting of certain species of snakes and crocodiles has become so widespread that it has put the above species of reptiles and cold-blooded animals on the brink of extinction.

Before proceeding to the description of the work, it is necessary to understand the accepted terminology.

Depending on which technological cycle you consider possible for yourself, you will have to work with material of varying degrees of readiness. In the event that your ambitions do not go beyond a small family business for sewing fur or leather clothes, it makes sense to purchase the so-called semi-finished product - dressed skins or leather, which do not require special pre-treatment operations.

Fur semi-finished product or dressed leather is completely ready for cutting and can be either separate natural or dyed skins, or plates and strips sewn from them (rectangular or trapezoidal panels) - for fur and geometrically shaped layers - for leather semi-finished product.

If conditions permit, it is preferable to take over the processing from the very beginning. It is more profitable to work with the so-called raw materials not only for economic reasons, but also because, by making skins yourself, you get the opportunity to fully control the entire process in compliance with all necessary requirements.

It is customary to call canned, but undressed skins of various animals as raw materials. Depending on its purpose and basic characteristics, raw materials can be leather, fur or fur. As a rule, meat processing plants and slaughterhouses of livestock farms sell skins in the form of raw materials (that is, canned). Before conservation, the skins are subjected to primary processing.

The skins of all types of domestic animals are removed in a layer (cavity), and the skins of a fur-bearing animal - in a layer, which is less preferable, or a "stocking" (tube), that is, without cutting along the midline of the abdomen. Cut (open) such a skin only before cutting.

Primary processing includes two stages: ritual (mind) and washing. The latter is used only for cattle skins, pig and horse skins intended for a certain method of conservation (see "Rules for conservation and storage"). The rite consists in removing dirt from the hairline of the skin, cleaning the skins from cuts of meat or fat and trimming substandard areas. The conservation of skins, that is, their transformation into raw materials for further processing, is caused by the need for more or less long-term storage of skins before dressing. The purpose of conservation is dehydration of the skin, as a result of which the vital activity of bacteria and enzymatic processes cease (self-decomposition of the steam skin under the action of the enzymes produced in it). There are several ways to preserve; more details about the advantages and disadvantages of each of them, as well as possible defects in conservation will be discussed below.

The skin has different characteristics in different topographical areas. This must be taken into account at all stages of processing and dressing skins. The parts of the skin are combined according to common features (the structure and physical properties of the leather tissue, etc.) and have established designations depending on the location on the body of the animal (Fig. 1): with a rump included in it, floors or belly and paws.

Rice. 1. Various sections of the skin of cattle

The skins of cattle (cattle) and astrakhan skins can have a head part (the skin of the frontal area and both cheeks removed from the head of the animal, one of which is adjacent to the frontal part). Otherwise, the names of the sections practically coincide with those indicated in the figure, only on pig skins the black-backed part is called the croupon (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Topography of the open skin of a fur-bearing animal

In the skin or skin itself, two components are distinguished, which differ sharply in mechanical, physico-chemical properties and in technological purpose - leather tissue and hairline.

Unlike, for example, the skins of cattle, which are used for dressing leather, raw fur coats and furs are also characterized by the quality of the hairline, which, like leather tissue, has noticeable differences in features in different parts of the skin.

So, the height of the hair (measured in its natural, unfolded state) decreases from the neck to the ridge and from the ridge to the neck, the density and color of the hairline also changes in different topographical areas: the hairline is the highest on the ridge and rump, the hairline is less dense on the neck . The exceptions are the so-called "semi-aquatic" species of fur-bearing animals (nutria, muskrat), which have the thickest fur on the belly.

The hairline consists of individual woolen fibers (hair), which can differ in structure and length. One or another purpose of raw materials depends on these features. For example, the predominance of coarse outer hair in the hairline makes the latter unsuitable for dyeing, and a uniform hairline with a predominance of finer fibers makes it possible to imitate a semi-finished fur product for valuable types of furs.

According to its structure, hair is divided into several morphological types: downy fibers, transitional and guard. Downy fibers consist of the main cortical layer and a thin protective shell - the scaly layer. The guard fibers, in addition, also have a so-called core layer with a fragile porous structure. It consists of dead keratinized cells with the inclusion of air spaces between them. In transitional fibers, the core layer is poorly developed and is not present along the entire length of the hair. Dead and dry fibers are also isolated, which almost entirely consist of the core layer.

Different types of fibers have different thicknesses, that is, the average diameter of an individual hair. This indicator is called the fineness of the fiber and also allows you to assign a separate skin to a specific group of raw materials for its final destination. Fineness is determined in the laboratory or, in the presence of known experience, by eye.

In addition to the appointment according to the characteristics of the hairline (for shearing hair and dressing the skin, for the production of fur coats or fur products), skins are distinguished by the quality of the leather tissue. Its main characteristics - thickness and density - are important not only when skinning, but also at all other stages: during primary processing - dressing and cutting.

When characterizing leather tissue, another special term is often used: “pull”. Pulling - the ability of the leather fabric to stretch with the subsequent preservation of linear dimensions.

The thickness and density of the leather tissue (and the strength of the skin depending on them) are the highest in the area of ​​​​the saddle and rump, less dense skin is located on the collar or - for fur coats - on the ridge and nape. The thinnest leather tissue is located on the sides and floors (skin). The main properties of leather tissue depend on its structure.

Skin tissue is made up of several interconnected layers. The skin itself is called the dermis and has a mixed structure. It consists of a complex interweaving of bundles of collagen fibers and a small number of reticulin and elastic fibers located between them.

Collagen fibers are the main structural element of the dermis, their bundles form a tight bond and provide mechanical strength to the entire skin tissue. Reticulin and elastin fibers have a smaller thickness and do not combine into bundles, their purpose is to give the skin elasticity and firmness.

The space between the fiber bundles is filled with the main (interfibrous) substance, consisting of various protein compounds, and cellular elements. In addition to fibers and the main substance, sweat and sebaceous glands, hair bags, hair muscles, lymphatic and blood vessels are located in the dermis.

According to the ratio of fibrous and cellular elements in the dermis, two layers are distinguished (Fig. 3), the boundary of which runs approximately at the depth of the bulk of the hair follicles (hair follicles). The upper layer, called papillary, is looser, since it accounts for the bulk of all cellular elements, glands and blood vessels.

Rice. 3. The structure of the skin tissue

The bottom layer is called mesh and contains most of the structure-forming fibrous elements (bundles of collagen fibers) intertwined with each other like a strong mesh.

Through protruding tubercles and depressions, the upper - papillary - layer of the dermis is connected to the epidermis. The epidermis consists of several layers of epithelial cells and has an insignificant thickness, however, its preservation during the processing of fur coats is extremely important, since it ensures the strength of the hairline.

Subcutaneous tissue is adjacent to the lower - mesh - layer of the dermis in the animal's body, consisting of an interweaving of muscle tissue with elastin and collagen fibers and a large number of fat cells. Nerve fibers and blood vessels that feed the dermis also pass through the subcutaneous tissue. The skin removed according to all the rules has a more or less thick layer of subcutaneous tissue and connective tissue (mesdra) on the underside of the skin tissue, which must be completely removed during processing.

The outer side of the skin tissue is called the front, and the inner side is the mezdra or - after the removal of the mezra - bakhtaryan. Mezdra is also sometimes called the skin tissue itself with an unexpressed division into layers (in animals of the embryonic stage of development). Speaking about the inner side of the leather tissue of the skinned skin, it is also simply called mezdra or bakhtarma. When producing a semi-finished leather product, the hairline is removed from the front side along with the epidermis, the surface of the papillary dermis is exposed, after which the finished skin acquires a characteristic “face” pattern - a measure.

Layer of subcutaneous tissue on raw hide

First letter "m"

Second letter "e"

The third letter "z"

The last beech is the letter "a"

Answer for the clue "A layer of subcutaneous tissue on raw hide", 6 letters:
mezdra

Alternative questions in crossword puzzles for the word mezdra

It is removed when skinning.

Reverse side of raw leather

Skin layer separated from the dermis

Layer of fabric adjacent to the skin on the inside (removed during tanning)

Word definitions for mezdra in dictionaries

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova. The meaning of the word in the dictionary New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
well. A layer of subcutaneous tissue on raw leather, animal skin. Wrong side of dressed leather or hide.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
mezdra, pl. no, w. (specialist.). Loose hypodermic hymen of animals. Non-front side of the skin, the wrong side of dressed leather.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998 The meaning of the word in the dictionary Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
a layer of skin (subcutaneous tissue, remnants of meat and fat), separated from the dermis during leather dressing. It is used for the preparation of wood glue, technical gelatin and fat.

Wikipedia The meaning of the word in the Wikipedia dictionary
Mezdra is a community in Bulgaria. It is part of the Vratsa region. The population is 23,943 (as of May 15, 2008).

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Vladimir Dal The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Vladimir Dal
mezdrina subcutaneous captivity, fiber, fused with the skin and partly removed along with it; bukhtarma; with a different method of dressing, it is more or less knocked down. Inside out, notch, underside of the skin. ? Vologda squirrel, veksha, dark in summer, whitish in winter. Mezdriny, - firewood, ...

Examples of the use of the word mezdra in the literature.

The devil with his throat slit was still alive, the devil wasn't going to let him die until he was skinned. mezdroy, so as not to damage the zamezdrin, otherwise all the work is in vain.

In the skin of Romanov sheep, bundles of collagen columns are not located horizontally, but are intertwined with each other, therefore mezdra has a very high strength.

Pulling the skin from the corpse mezdra rubbed with arsenic soap, then the bones are wetted and boiled.

My business was small - to catch a Cat or a Dog, kill him, carefully peel off his skin, God bless, mezdra do not spoil it, scrape it up to the condition, then on special braces, and drying is also a whole science: if you dry it out - it’s their skin, for example.

If a mezdra crunches and rustles when compressed, which means the fur is overdried, which indicates its fragility and fragility.

XP. 2.7.44.5. Processing and dressing of skins. Raw.

Alexander Sergeevich Suvorov ("Alexander Suvory").

CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF HUMANITY DEVELOPMENT.

Experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity

Book two. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY BEFORE OUR ERA.

Part 7. The era of mythical civilizations.

Chapter 44.5. Processing and dressing of skins. Raw.

Illustration from the open Internet.

Eurasia (Russia). Eastern Siberia. Berengia. North America. Migrations of primitive people. Modern humanity. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is a race of mankind of classical intelligent Neanderthals. Homo sapiens sapiens are the classical Cro-Magnon race of humanity. Animals of the Mammoth Complex. Siberian bison. Processing and dressing of skins. Raw. 50,000 BC

The processing and dressing of any animal skins is a complex, lengthy and time-consuming process. Skinning is just the beginning. Then the skin must be properly folded, transferred to a camp or to a camp-settlement and carefully processed there.

If someone thinks that the primitive people of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC) were “wild”, “uncivilized”, “primitive”, then let this modern person try to get a buffalo on a hunt, remove (“tear off”) the skin from it and process it with Stone Age tools so that it is soft, fluffy, clean, convenient for use and storage ...

The processing and dressing of animal skins requires compliance with:
special temperature regime;
certain complex solutions;
long, careful and labor-intensive processing;
tools and devices;
experience and knowledge;
intelligence and patience.

Any deviation from the traditional methods and techniques of dressing skins developed over thousands of years leads to their deterioration.

Perhaps it is the traditional primitive methods, techniques, techniques and technology for processing animal skins that are an indicator of the level of civilization of mankind at a given time (50,000 BC).

In any case, there is no doubt that the classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC) procured, dressed and used animal skins and furs everywhere. How did they (or could they) do it?

Processing and dressing of skins is a multi-level and multi-operational (complex) mechanical and chemical effect that changes the properties of the skin, makes it suitable for use and long-term storage.

For the processing of skins and fur, first of all, water (a lot of water), various substances and solutions (organic and mineral) and special tools (tools and devices) are needed.

A freshly skinned, untreated animal skin (such as a bison) without treatment tends to quickly lose its elasticity, shrink, harden, or begin to deteriorate. Therefore, primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) inevitably, naturally and naturally try to maintain the elasticity of the skin, preventing it from drying out and spoiling.

For skinning (cleaning the skin), special tools-tools (scrapers) are used, as well as methods and devices that facilitate work and level the surface of the processed skin (blocks, pins). That is why in the primitive sites and camps numerous stone scrapers are found, which, most likely, were used to clean and soften the mezra.

The fact is that the original, oldest and most common way of processing skins was raw meat (raw meat) - cleansing and kneading raw ("steam", fresh) skins, "raw meat". With this method, tanning is not used (treatment of the skin with chemical solutions and substances).

Raw meat (raw meat, raw meat), as a rule, surpasses tanned skins in its softness, plasticity, and strength. Rawhide may retain hair or be hairless and have the appearance of beautiful velvety suede ("buckskin").

The original antiquity of rawhide is evidenced by its numerous names that will be used by various peoples of Eurasia, as well as the multiple ways of its processing and production: “scraped rawhide”, “bread (Russian) rawhide”, “alum (Hungarian, German) rawhide”, “ pickled raw food”, “ash-bread raw food”, “praised raw food”, “milk raw food”, “smoky raw meat”, “frozen raw food”, “ash-glucose raw meat” and “alcohol raw food”.

However, the primary rawhide or rawhide (skin) was probably “chewed rawhide”, because the most probable and very first way of processing the skin (skin) was its processing by chewing with teeth, sucking with the mouth, wetting with saliva.

Rawhide (hide) differs from all other types of skin (hide) in that it remains actually edible, that is, raw natural skin (hide). Therefore, it can be eaten in hungry years and times ...

Dressing of rawhide is carried out in the following order: skinning the skin (cleaning the skin), dehairing the skin (removing hair, if necessary), impregnating the skin (skin) with various substances and drying with kneading the skin (skin). If conditions allow, then impregnation and drying are replaced by freezing the skin. Then, for better preservation of raw meat, it is fattened and (or) smoked.

Naturally and naturally, primitive people of this time (50,000 BC), when cutting animal carcasses (for example, bison), noticed that if the liver, lungs and brains of an animal are wrapped in a skin that has been removed, then rawness from this becomes softer, more elastic, more plastic .

Therefore, when curing (impregnating) rawhide, these important organs of the animal were inevitably used, as well as other active natural (natural) substances: animal and bird excrement, fermented milk products, fish oil and caviar, human urine, as well as various starter cultures, for example, kvass from flour and bran ("Russian bread raw meat").

That the primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) are probably already familiar with intentionally crushed or crushed grains, stems, leaves, fruits and roots of plants is not in doubt, since this naturally follows from the presence of a well-developed industry production of stone tools. (See: XP 2.5.2. The era of modern man. Grain grinder. 280,000 BC).

Probably the most important step in the technique (technology) of processing rawhide (leather) is kneading.

Kneading, kneading, chewing with teeth, twisting, shaking, rolling, turning at different angles, stretching under tension along a smooth branch-stick, trampling the skin with the legs (feet) of children and adults - all and all sorts of methods of softening the skins are used by primitive people of this time (50 000 BC) to make rawhide really soft, flexible and pliable.

The fact is that poor-quality raw material, after getting wet or over time, can harden, like raw, "steam" or freshly skinned (skin). To prevent this from happening, raw meat is treated (impregnated) with fats and (or) smoked. During impregnation and smoking, raw meat is saturated with emollients and smoke tar.

After greasing (impregnation) and smoking, white (light) rawhide (skin) acquires a beautiful cream or brown color of varying intensity. The rawhide or leather is now ready for further dyeing and/or coloring...

Rawhide skins of different quality are used to make:

Coverings of dwellings;
curtains;
bed coverings;
clothes;
shoes;
hats and masks;
waist belts;
braided ropes and laces;
bag, bags, knapsack, bags;
arcane;
harness;
fastening straps-bandages;
bowstrings;
slings;
whips;
cases and pouches;
scabbard for weapons;
shields;
jewelry and toys,
as well as many other items of primitive life and economy.

Especially carefully dressed rawhide is used to make shaman tambourines and drums ...

For the needs of this second book of the "Chronology ...", this could be stopped, but the author, for the most inquisitive readers, will tell a few more details of the reconstruction of the most ancient methods of processing and dressing rawhide, animal skins and skins.

Engaged in the processing and dressing of hides and skins, primitive people of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC), undoubtedly and inevitably, knew or should have known (know) the structure and structure of skins, hair and skin, properties and defects of skins (leather), their difference by types and breeds, rules for the use, storage and care of skins (rawhide).

So, for example, they knew that the skin of most animals has the following structure: hairline (fur), skin consisting of several layers and subcutaneous layer (mezdra). Now this structure of skins has names: hairline; epidermis (epidermis); dermis; fat layer; muscle layer; subcutaneous tissue.

Naturally, primitive people of that time distinguished and well felt the difference in the hairline of animal skins (in particular, bison skins). The hairs of animal skins are subdivided into guiding, guard, intermediate, downy and sentient hairs (vibrissae, whiskers).

The shortest and thinnest downy hairs form the thickest underlying layer of the hairline. They are supported and prevented from falling off by the guides, guard hairs and intermediate hairs of the skin. The guide hairs give the hide and fur a beautiful appearance, while the outer and intermediate hairs give volume and splendor to the hairline of the hide.

All hairs together form a hairline, which well protects the skin and body of the animal from hypothermia and overheating, from mechanical influences and from excessive environmental humidity. It is these properties of animal skins and fur that are urgently needed by people of this and the present time for active life in the most severe natural conditions.

In most animals of the Mammoth Complex, the hairline is in a state of rest (winter or summer) or in a state of growth or molting (spring, autumn). During shedding, old hair falls out and is replaced by new hair.

The roots of guard and down hairs lie in the skin of animals at different depths, therefore, during skinning, for example, the roots of guard hairs are cut and they easily fall out of the skin (“flow”).

The skin of the animal skin also has a layered structure.

The surface layer of the skin (epidermis) is very thin (1/20 of the thickness of the skin), but it also consists of two layers: horny (upper) and mucous (inner). The upper protective stratum corneum, dying off during the life of the animal, turns into dandruff.

The skin (dermis) consists mainly of collagen fibers, which determine the main consumer properties of the skin and skins. The top layer of the skin (dermis) is the location of the hair roots. The strength of the hairline depends on the state of this layer. Here are the sebaceous and sweat glands, there is a "life" of the skin.

In the lower layer of the skin (dermis) there are fibers of the connective mesh tissue, which determine the tensile strength of the skin (skin). It is this layer that hardens and becomes horny with improper processing, dressing and storage of the skin, determines the flexibility, softness, elasticity and strength of the skin (skin).

The inner part of the skin (skin) or mezdra consists of a fat layer, a muscular layer and subcutaneous tissue.

The fat layer contains fat cells separated by thin films of connective tissue. The muscle layer is a thin film of muscle tissue, and the subcutaneous tissue is a loose connective tissue with fat cells that directly connects the skin to the animal carcass.

Fat and muscle layers, as well as subcutaneous tissue - this is the mezdra, bakhtarma or the inner side of the skin, which is removed with scrapers during skinning.

By the way, the skin of animals in structure looks very similar to the bark of trees. Perhaps that is why, according to the law of similarity (everything is similar to everything), skins and skins in the old days were called “skora” or “skoryo”, and the craftsmen who made the speed were called furriers, tanners and tanners.

The main strength properties of skins and skin are provided by collagen or connective tissue, which makes up over 90% of the total amount of protein substances of the skin (skin).

Collagen tissue (collagen - “glue giving”) tends to swell in water, and when heated to a temperature of 50-60 ° C, it welds and becomes rubber-like. Active chemicals (acids and alkalis), as well as high-energy environmental radiation, further affect collagen tissue.

At the same time, collagen has the ability to combine with tannins, which dramatically change its properties: collagen tissue becomes resistant to moisture (swells less), to high temperature (“welds” at higher temperatures), and also becomes resistant to microorganisms, rot and mold.

Of course, it is doubtful that primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) knew everything about skins and skin that we know, modern people, especially in the above expressions and words. However, they could and knew the listed properties of hides and skins in practice.

For example, undoubtedly, they could distinguish the skins and skins of animals of different ages and animals of different species.

Initially and at all times, the skins of animals with high and thick fur, on which thermal conductivity, wear, splendor and beauty of skins (fur, skin) depend, have and have the greatest practical and aesthetic value.

The most valuable skins with fur should be soft, resilient, lush, durable, with a beautiful color and shine of hair. Skins that are resistant to tearing and wear are especially valued.

Such skins are found in animals (in particular, bison) of autumn and late autumn hunting prey. During the spring molt, the hair falls out easily, the skin is unevenly covered with tufts of matted, dying hair.

That is why hunters of all times and peoples, countries and villages prefer to hunt fur-bearing animals and animals seasonally - in autumn (from August) or early winter (until the end of December). At this time, the animals of the Mammoth Complex are well-fed, fleshy, fatty, and the skin is removed from them dense and healthy. The main thing is that during this period all summer sores, damages and defects of the skin heal, and new (winter) ones do not appear yet ...

The skins of Siberian bison and other large horned animals of the Mammoth complex have very good consumer properties, because their skin, due to the special structure of the skin, is usually tight, strong, internally stretched, "roasted", with a small fat content. Therefore, among all types of skins and skins available to primitive man, the skin of a bison is the most durable, and therefore valuable.

Probably, the primitive people of this time, the classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, already know the difference and value of skins and skins, depending on the sex and age of animals.

Undoubtedly, the skin and skin of a young bison calf, still feeding on the milk of a female bison mother, is of the greatest value. The fibers of such a skin (leather) - "flasks" - are thin, elastic and densely intertwined. The hairline is thick, thin, lush and beautiful. The skin of the "flasks" is soft, thin, with a beautiful surface (mereya). In the future, parchment for the first handwritten books and annals will be made from the skin of the "flasks".

The skin-skin of a bison calf that switched to plant food - “outgrowth” - is even, thick with a beautiful surface (mereya), but less full than the skin-skin of “calf boxes”. From the skin-leather of the "growth" they make the top of leather shoes and leather goods.

The skin-skin of the female bison - “yalovka” - is thinner, more elastic and more elastic than the skin-skin of male bison. In appearance, it is more even and beautiful. The skin-skin "yalovka" on the neck and belly of the female bison is thinner than on the ridge. The uppers of leather shoes, soles, backs, welts, lining soles and light straps are made from the skin-leather of the “Yalovka”.

The skin-skin of a young male bison - "bull" - as a rule, is evenly thick and resistant to all sorts of influences. With age, the “bull” on the neck and belly of the male bison thickens and becomes loose. The same thing is made from the “bychyna” as the “yalovka” is made from the skin-leather.

The skin-skin of a well-developed adult male bison - “bull” - is the heaviest, thickest and most durable among all such skin-skins. The skin-skin is bullish, as a rule, thick, rough and loose. The skin-skin on the neck of a bull bison is thicker than on the ridge. However, the older the animal, the less resistant its skin-skin to environmental influences. The skin-leather of the bull is used for the manufacture of almost all leather technical products.

About what and how primitive people of this and subsequent times did or could do from the skins and skins of bison and other animals and beasts, in particular from rawhide, in the subsequent chapters of the "Chronology ...".

Reviews

Plagiarized from Wikipedia without citing sources. Moreover, the author transfers the realities of the XIX and XX centuries. in the Paleolithic, as he imagines it. Has no real knowledge about leather business and other things. Therefore, the text is the author's fantasy on the topic.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 3.

Unfortunately, you arrogantly made a mistake in your review and ratings.

You probably identified yourself in this review as "the author of the Wikipedia article" Rawhide "", which I did not use in my work on my work. For this, there are more authoritative and full-fledged primary sources.

Your claim that my work is "plagiarism from Wikipedia without citing sources" is unsubstantiated.

Your statement that "the author transfers the realities of the 19th and 20th centuries to the Paleolithic" is also unsubstantiated, since the technology of processing and dressing rawhide undoubtedly, historically and naturally "came" to us in modern times from the Paleolithic.

Your statement that the author "does not have real knowledge of leather business and other things", unfortunately, is unproven, contradicts the facts stated in my work and betrays your personal irritability and hypertrophied self-conceit.

As for the "author's fantasies on the topic", you are partly right - my work "Chronology of the history of the development of mankind" is "an experience of reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity" and is published on the server of literary prose works.

Therefore, thank you, dear Sergey Konovalov 3, for your response, but henceforth I ask you in your reviews and judgments to correspond to the high level of authorship of articles by such a unique Internet education as Wikipedia.

With hope for mutual understanding A.S. Suvorov

Since Wikipedia works on communist principles, then this is not about my personal copyright, but about your failure to indicate Wikipedia as the primary source. The text in "Rawhide" is created "from the head". In other sources, those offers and turnovers simply do not exist. I don't confuse them with anything. Moreover, everything is copied, up to the content in parentheses. Everyone can be sure of this.

As for factual errors, they could be analyzed in detail in one of the historical forums. I am present at "New Herodotus" and "History.Ru". If it is about leathers, then you mechanically transferred information from other Wikipedia articles on leatherworking to the Paleolithic. But in reality, all the above terminology refers to modern factory production, where the skins of cattle serve as raw materials. It is impossible to transfer this to the Paleolithic, where even the simplest metal tools did not exist. And you just took and replaced cows and bulls with bison. What is the thickness of bison skin? What about the mammoth and the rhinoceros? And talking about rawhide in the Paleolithic should be very, very careful. But you have a poor understanding of the meanings of the terms used and do not catch important nuances.
Sergey 6662.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 3 or Sergey 6662.

Unfortunately, you again simply say something with errors, assert and accuse "out of your head", but do not provide evidence.

At the same time, it is very, very careless, since, judging by the automatic registration of readers on the Proza.ru server, you have only read one of the chapters of my "Chronology". In the previous chapters, answers to many of your perplexities.

I hope you "understand the meaning of the terms used", "caught this nuance" and can bring here - in the place of your review - any facts confirming your statements and accusations.

Try to offer your version of the undoubted technology of extraction, use, processing and dressing by primitive people of skins, skins and, in particular, raw meat, different from the traditional technology described in the "Chronology" ...

By the way, in Internet search engines the word "raw-having", including listing its types and names, opens 13,000 links to various sites, including specialized encyclopedias and reference books for furriers and tanners.

Perhaps your "head" drew its own terms and definitions for the Wikipedia article from there?

Your plagiarism is all over the place. I'm not going to transfer both articles here in full and compare. I will take only one suggestion, because there are not even similar ones on any sites of tanners, and indeed in the relevant literature. It is "out of my head". But, of course, based on knowledge of ethnographic realities.

You: "Rawhide (skin) differs from all other types of selected skin (skin) in that it remains actually edible, that is, raw natural skin (skin). Therefore, it can be eaten in hungry years and times ..."

On Wikipedia: "An important property of rawhide is that it remains virtually the same raw skin, that is, a completely edible product. Therefore, in difficult situations, things were cooked and eaten from it."

I watched not only this section, but also some others. Everywhere is full of mistakes. And for your own benefit, you have to spend time and explain that it is ridiculous to transfer not only to the Paleolithic, but also to the tribes of our time, the terminology that is used, according to GOST, at tanneries. There is a desire - you can make out every word. Naturally, this is not the place for that. You can be sure of my competence, because I am both an archaeologist and a tanner. And I would advise you to familiarize yourself with the work of the laboratory of practical archeology by S. A. Semyonov. By the way, the list of references on Wikipedia is also given for a reason.
Sergey 6662.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 2 or Sergey 6662.

It looks like you seriously think that your (perhaps) words "from the head" in the Wikipedia article are the primary source in describing the properties of rawhide ... and without your words and authorship, no one ever knew and did not know that it can be eaten.

Unfortunately, you again made a mistake in your conceit and again indiscriminately assert that I have "everywhere full of mistakes."

As for modern terminology in describing the technologies of the historical past, I warned readers about this in advance in the previous chapters of the Chronology.

Unfortunately, I, and perhaps readers, have to doubt your competence as an "archaeologist and tanner" signed "Sergei 6662".

I have no time to read your demagogy. If you doubt the competence, then do not use my work. Throw out all the texts of the Wikipedia articles from your work. Or use without distorting the meaning, indicating the source. The main thing is that readers will now know what they are dealing with.
Sergey 6662. information about the portal and contact the administration.

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